Carlos Perez Marin

   As we have seen so far, the importance of Ceuta derives directly from its (double) geographical position; north of a vast continent and close to the south of another; end of a sea and in the area of contact between it and an ocean. Without these two conditions the history of the city would have been different. Based on these geographical parameters, we would have to look at other areas of the planet where similar circumstances exist, starting with our own continent, Africa. Thus, we find two areas in which a transit from Asia to Africa occurs and that also allows passage between seas and oceans. We will briefly mention the historical implications and the main elements of the existing historical heritage that would demonstrate the importance of both geographical areas throughout history. However, have they been important during all historical periods or did they lose that relevance at certain times? In “our” Strait, practically since the arrival of the Phoenicians in the 8th century BC there has been a population that has permanently inhabited some of its most relevant places, and without us having information of the type of occupation from Prehistory to Antiquity.

6.01 Nile Delta

   The mouth of the Nile River in Egypt can be considered the meeting point between Asia and Africa but also, since the 19th century BC (Ancient Egypt) there are mentions of the construction of hydraulic works that connected the distributary channels of the Nile Delta with the Great Bitter Lake and from there with the Red Sea (in an east-west direction) to facilitate transit between the Mediterranean and Red seas. However, the oldest known hydraulic work with the same purpose was the one built in the 6th century BC, during the reign of Darius I, when Persia reached from present-day Libya to the geographical limits with India. These hydraulic works, which have occurred almost constantly throughout history due to the nature of the delta itself (with continuous contribution of sedimentary material and its consequent changes in water courses), have also made possible the transit of civilisations from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean. Therefore, this strategic position of the canals has led to a constant dispute for their control by Phoenicians, Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Romans, Muslims, French, Ottomans, British…

   In this geographical region of the Nile Delta, different routes and axes of intercontinental communications also converge; the coastal routes (maritime and land) that connected the eastern and western ends of the Mediterranean (Middle East, northern Africa and southern Europe); the caravan routes that started from Cairo and reached different Saharan regions, both from the northern shore (following routes parallel to the Mediterranean coast) and from the southern shore (arriving at different meridians of the Sahalian region); The river route up the Nile River to Nubia became the main north-south axis connecting Egypt with the Sahel. To bypass the control imposed on the routes along the Nile, maritime routes arose through the Red Sea, which were extended to the coasts of India through the Indian Ocean (routes created by Greek navigators).

   These routes were not only commercial and military, they were also used for the expansion of Islam. The fact that one had to pass through the Nile Delta to go from Africa to Mecca for the pilgrimage increased the relevance of this area. Starting in the 19th century, with the construction of the Suez Canal, this region once again had capital importance, which remains to this day, since the opening of the canal made it possible to shorten the maritime routes between Asia and Europe for larger and deeper vessels, being a key step for the world economy.

   Despite this historical importance, Egypt has only 7 places declared as World Heritage; in the Sinai Peninsula, in Cairo, in the Nubia region, in the city of Thebes, in the city of Abu Mena and in the Wadi al-Hitan valley. But there is no type of protection for the Nile Delta, not even as a Cultural Landscape.

6.02 Askum

   In the Awash River there is one of the most important paleontological sites in Africa (declared World Heritage in 1980) with remains of australopithecines between 6 and 2.5 million years old that have allowed greater knowledge of human evolution. At the beginning of the year 2000, archaeological studies determined a dating of one million years ago for an almost complete skull that is thought to be from Homo erectus, and it was not the only one because years later, more specimens from the same era were found, making this region a priority for archaeologists. Some researchers maintain that this was one of the routes used by hominids in their first expansion beyond the African continent and that caused them to subsequently occupy all the continents, hence its importance.

   As we have seen, thanks to the hydraulic works carried out in the Nile Delta it was possible to establish a new maritime trade route between the Mediterranean and the Red Seas, however, it was not only about connecting these two seas, since the Strait of Bab el-Mandeb connects the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden and this with the Indian Ocean. If we also take into account that this Strait brings the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula closer to the coast of East Africa (separated by 20 km), whoever controlled this passage would be controlling the Mediterranean-Indian route. It is therefore another strategic place, which is why different civilisations have settled since ancient times to ensure its control, as witnessed by the constructions dated between the 8th and 7th centuries BC in Yeha (Ethiopia). In the 1st century, the kingdom of Aksum appeared (about 150 km far from the port of Adulis and extended through the territories of present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea), increasing its prominence in the region thanks to its geographical position, at the intersection of two communications axes, even expanding to the other side of the Strait, already in the Arabian Peninsula (with the consequent cultural exchange). Aksum was not only linked to maritime routes, the connection with the Nile Valley allowed it to act as an intermediary with other regions of Central Africa, thus increasing its power. The link with Egypt was what allowed Christianity to reach Askum in the 4th century and explains why the region has continued to maintain it as a religion since then. There is, however, an important fact that shows that the influence of a territory can become much more important in much more distant geographies (at least in distance). Given the importance of Askum and its control over different axes of communications, this kingdom was chosen for the exile to which the first followers of the Prophet were forced to face the persecutions they suffered from the pre-Islamic polytheists (the protection offered to them by the Aksunite king was recorded in Islamic culture as the First Hegira).

   In addition to the commercial connections to the north and east of the kingdom, land and sea routes were also created with the south of East Africa, that is, with the Swahili culture, who already maintained commercial relations with other civilisations and kingdoms of the Indian Ocean since the beginning of our era (L’Afrique Ancienne. De l’acacés au Zimbabwe, François-Xavier Fauvelle). The decline of the empire occurred in the 10th century as a consequence of Persian expansion and the impact of Islam on neighbouring regions. However, this is not the only notable historical period in this geographical area.

   Starting in the 13th century, the Ethiopian Empire began, although it did not reach the power of Askum, it continued to be an important player in the region's trade routes, to such an extent that at the end of the 15th century the Portuguese allied themselves with them against attacks. of the neighbouring sultanates. Portuguese influence continued until the beginning of the 17th century, at which time the Empire isolated itself from foreign powers. For centuries, emperors and internal disputes followed one another until the end of the 19th century with the arrival of Europeans to the coasts of the Red Sea, within their respective colonialist strategies. At the beginning of the 20th century they were occupied by Italian troops until they were expelled during the Second World War.

   The history of Ethiopia and Eritrea has left an architectural heritage that has been recognised by UNESCO with the inscription as World Heritage of 10 places, of which 6 could be related to the geographical position that interests us; the lower Aswach valley with the archaeological remains of australopithecines; the ruins of the ancient city of Askum from the 1st to 13th centuries; the excavated churches of Lalibela from the 13th century; the fortified city of Harrar, with walls built between the 13th and 16th centuries but with mosques from the 10th century; the fortified city of Fasil Ghebi from the 16th and 17th centuries; the modernist city of Asmara of the 20th century.

   Although the Nile Delta and Askum are far from the Strait of Gibraltar, there are coincidences or parallels in different aspects of their respective stories. For example, the geographical importance to direct flows, whether migratory, commercial, military, cultural...; prehistoric sites (at least in the straits) have special relevance in evolutionary theories; the Greek, Muslim, Portuguese presence; connections with other distant geographies; the sites or architectural complexes declared World Heritage; the influences received or contributed from the nearby continent... In short, we find three exceptional geographical areas that help explain a part of the history of humanity and that also continue to play a fundamental role at a global level due to the validity of the maritime routes through whose straits have been traversed by merchants since ancient times.

   Are there be other places in the world with similar geographical characteristics? Would they be as relevant as these three? There are only two others located at the confluence of two continents and two seas (or oceans), the Bosphorus Strait and the Bering Strait.. Let's quickly see if they can be compared to the Strait of Gibraltar.

6.03 The Bosphorus Strait

   It is a natural passage between Asia and Europe by land, and between the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara by sea through the Bosphorus Strait. From the Sea of Marmara, crossing the Strait of Dardanelles, you reach the Aegean Sea and from this to the Mediterranean. Both straits currently represent the only exit to the Mediterranean for 5 countries (Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia and Georgia), a geographical importance that has been maintained since Prehistory as it is considered the natural passage through which man arrived in Europe (after passing from Africa to Asia through the Middle East). Since ancient times, control of the straits by civilisations from Europe and Asia has been a priority and a source of conflict; primacy over the eastern Mediterranean was at stake, as was the supply of grain from the Black Sea (an issue that has remained in force from Antiquity to the present day).

   The main city in this geographical area is the current Istanbul, founded by the Greeks as Byzantium in the 7th century BC; it was later refounded as Constantinople at the beginning of the 4th century; At the end of the same year, after the division of the Roman Empire, it would become the capital of the Byzantine Empire. At its peak, the empire dominated practically the entire Mediterranean and the Black Sea, and a good part of the Red Sea, thus controlling the straits of Gibraltar, Dardanelles, Bosphorus and the passage through the Nile Delta, in an attempt to reunify the two empires, east and west. As the centuries passed, Byzantium lost power but it was not until the mid-15th century that the capital fell into the hands of the Ottomans (arrived from Central Asia and Asia Minor), putting an end to 11 centuries of hegemony in the region. The new empire was not going to be satisfied with the limits of its predecessor and began a new era of expansion that in the 16th century led it to incorporate into its borders the southern shore of the Mediterranean (with the exception of the Strait of Gibraltar), almost all of the Black Sea and its coastal regions, the Red Sea and a direct access to the Persian Gulf after conquering Iraq. This vast Muslim empire was considered the successor of the ancient caliphates that reached al-Andalus. During the 19th century, the empire gradually decomposed until the defeat in the First World War, at the hands of the winning European powers (United Kingdom, France and Italy), ended a long process of dissolution that ended with the partition of the Ottoman Empire and the emergence of the Turkish Republic in 1923.

   The turbulent and intense history of Istanbul has given rise to a vast and extensive historical heritage declared as World Heritage since 1985.

6.04 Bering Strait

   It is a geographical point where the Pacific and Arctic oceans (of great biological interest) coincide, and the American and Asian continents, which are separated by 82 km, however its occupation is now testimonial; a still-operating 17th-century lighthouse on the Russian mainland coast; the village of Wales on the coast of Alaska, with a population of 168 people but in which a mound dated between the 6th and 10th centuries was found (the current village dates from the late 19th century); the village of Diomede on the island of Diomede Minor, right in the middle of the Strait and with a population of 85 people, used as a hunting area for 3,000 years and to which the first Europeans arrived in the 17th century, although permanent occupation did not occur until the 19th century. The importance of the Bering Strait lies in the times of the last ice age, when sea level was much lower and the Pacific and Arctic oceans were separated. It is at this time when, according to researchers, the passage of man from Asia to America occurred, between 15,000 and 14,000 years BC, other researchers propose a much earlier date up to 33,000 years BC (History of the Bering Land Bridge Theory. National Park Service).

Credits texts, photos and drawings: Carlos Pérez Marín